In 1869, the first transcontinental railroad in the United States was completed at Promontory Summit, Utah. Thousands of workers, including many immigrants from China, had spent seven years building the line. The railroad reduced a coast-to-coast journey from about a month to only five days, encouraged settlement in the American West, and allowed businesses to ship goods across the country much more efficiently.
Railroads also created the need for standardized time. Since local communities had previously set their clocks by the sun, different cities showed different times. Sir Sandford Fleming proposed dividing the world into twenty-four time zones, and in 1883 American cities adopted standardized railway time. This made travel and communication more predictable and helped people think of the world as smaller and more connected.
In 1879, Thomas Edison developed a practical electric light bulb by sealing an electrically heated filament inside an airtight glass bulb. He and his assistants also developed the wires, generators, sockets, and other equipment needed to supply electricity. Electric lighting extended the working day beyond sunset and became another major sign of the modern industrial age.
Japan was also forced to confront the modern Western world. After Commodore Matthew Perry opened Japan to American trade in 1854, many Japanese opposed the unequal treaties but recognized that Japan could not remain isolated. In 1868, the Tokugawa shogun Yoshinobu resigned, ending more than 250 years of shogunate rule. The young emperor was placed in power, and this political change became known as the Meiji Restoration.
The leaders of the Meiji government rapidly adopted Western technology and institutions. They sent students abroad, hired foreign experts to develop shipbuilding, mining, and factories, and created a modern conscript army. These changes ended the samurai’s special military role and led to the Satsuma Revolt, which was defeated by the new army. By 1884, Japan had a constitution modeled partly on Germany’s: the emperor served mainly as a national symbol, while a cabinet and representative assemblies governed the country. Through these reforms, Japan began transforming itself into a modern nation capable of competing with Western powers.