# Study Guide: Chapter 4 — Gender Inequality > Organized by textbook section. Review the objectives, study topics, key takeaways, and questions for each section. ## 4.1: Understanding Sex and Gender ### Study Topics - Gender as a Social Construction - The Development of Gender Differences - Figure 4.1 Belief That Women Should Stay at Home - Biology and Gender - Culture and Gender - Socialization and Gender - The Family - Children and Our Future - Mass Media - A Final Word on the Sources of Gender ### Key Terms - **androgynous** — Containing aspects of both femaleness and maleness, or of both femininity and masculinity. - **family** — A group of two or more people who are related by blood, marriage, adoption, or a mutual commitment and who care for one another. - **gender identity** — Individuals’ beliefs about themselves as either females or males. Also: The personal conception of oneself as female, male, both, or neither. - **masculinity** — Cultural expectations of boys and men, including toughness and bravery. - **race** — A category of people who share certain inherited physical characteristics, such as skin color, facial features, and stature. - **secondary sex characteristics** — Biological differences between females and males that emerge during puberty. - **social construction** — A concept that has no objective reality but rather is what people decide it is. - **Socialization** — The process whereby individuals learn the culture of their society. - **stereotypes** — Simplified, mistaken generalizations about people because of their race and/or ethnicity. ### Learning Objectives 1. Define sex, gender, femininity, and masculinity. 2. Critically assess the evidence on biology, culture and socialization, and gender. 3. Discuss agents of gender socialization. ### Key Takeaways - Sex is a biological concept, while gender is a social concept and refers to the social and cultural differences a society assigns to people based on their sex. - Several biological explanations for gender roles exist, but sociologists think culture and socialization are more important sources of gender roles than biology. - Families, schools, peers, the mass media, and religion are agents of socialization for the development of gender identity and gender roles. ### Review Questions 1. Write a short essay about one or two events you recall from your childhood that reflected or reinforced your gender socialization. 2. Do you think gender roles are due more to biology or to culture and socialization? Explain your answer. ## 4.2: Feminism and Sexism ### Study Topics - The Growth of Feminism and the Decline of Sexism ### Key Terms - **Capitalism** — An economic system in which the means of production are privately owned. - **civil war** — War within nations. - **family** — A group of two or more people who are related by blood, marriage, adoption, or a mutual commitment and who care for one another. - **patriarchy** — Male domination. - **race** — A category of people who share certain inherited physical characteristics, such as skin color, facial features, and stature. - **sexism** — The belief that women are inferior to men. - **stereotypes** — Simplified, mistaken generalizations about people because of their race and/or ethnicity. ### Learning Objectives 1. Define feminism, sexism, and patriarchy. 2. Discuss evidence for a decline in sexism. ### Key Takeaways - Feminism refers to the belief that women and men should have equal opportunities in economic, political, and social life, while sexism refers to a belief in traditional gender role stereotypes and in the inherent inequality between men and women. - Sexist beliefs have declined in the United States since the early 1970s. ### Review Questions 1. Do you consider yourself a feminist? Why or why not? 2. Think about one of your parents or of another adult much older than you. Does this person hold more traditional views about gender than you do? Explain your answer. ## 4.3: Dimensions of Gender Inequality ### Study Topics - The Global Inequality of Women - Lessons from Other Societies - Women in the Nordic Nations - Gender Inequality in the United States - The Gender Gap in Income - Table 4.2 Gender Segregation in the Workplace for Selected Occupations, 2010 - Figure 4.4 Gender, Age, and Median Weekly Earnings of Full-Time Employees, 2010 - Sexual Harassment - Applying Social Research - Women of Color: A Triple Burden - Household Inequality ### Key Terms - **comparable worth** — The idea that women’s and men’s jobs may be of roughly equal value and thus deserve the same pay, even though women’s jobs typically pay less than men’s jobs. - **crime** — Behavior considered so harmful or offensive that it is banned by the criminal law. - **Discrimination** — With regard to racial and ethnic inequality, the arbitrary denial of rights, privileges, and opportunities to members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups. - **economy** — The social institution that organizes the production, distribution, and consumption of a society’s goods and services. - **educational attainment** — How far one gets in school, which has been shown to depend heavily on family income and race/ethnicity. - **family** — A group of two or more people who are related by blood, marriage, adoption, or a mutual commitment and who care for one another. - **glass escalator** — The smooth path afforded men in promotion in the workplace, especially in occupations primarily filled by women. - **institutional discrimination** — Discrimination that pervades the practices of whole institutions, such as housing, medical care, law enforcement, employment, and education, even if such discrimination is not intended. - **race** — A category of people who share certain inherited physical characteristics, such as skin color, facial features, and stature. - **sex segregation** — In the workplace, the concentration of women in a relatively few low-paying clerical and service jobs. - **sexual harassment** — Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or physical conduct of a sexual nature that is used as a condition of employment or promotion or that interferes with an individual’s job performance and creates an intimidating or hostile environment. - **Socialization** — The process whereby individuals learn the culture of their society. ### Learning Objectives 1. Summarize the status of women around the world today. 2. Understand the extent of and reasons for gender inequality in income and the workplace in the United States. 3. Understand the extent of and reasons for sexual harassment. ### Key Takeaways - Among full-time workers, women earn about 79.4 percent of men’s earnings. This gender gap in earnings stems from several factors, including sex segregation in the workplace and the lower wages and salaries found in occupations that involve mostly women. - Sexual harassment results partly from women’s subordinate status in the workplace and may involve up to two-thirds of women employees. - Women of color may face a “triple burden” of difficulties based on their gender, their race/ethnicity, and their social class. ### Review Questions 1. Do you think it is fair for occupations dominated by women to have lower wages and salaries than those dominated by men? Explain your answer. 2. If you know a woman who works in a male-dominated occupation, interview her about any difficulties she might be experiencing as a result of being in this sort of situation. ## 4.4: Violence against Women- Rape and Sexual Assault ### Study Topics - The Extent and Context of Rape and Sexual Assault - Explaining Rape and Sexual Assault ### Key Terms - **crime** — Behavior considered so harmful or offensive that it is banned by the criminal law. - **Deviance** — Behavior that violates norms and arouses negative social reactions. - **family** — A group of two or more people who are related by blood, marriage, adoption, or a mutual commitment and who care for one another. - **masculinity** — Cultural expectations of boys and men, including toughness and bravery. - **National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)** — An annual survey conducted by the US Department of Justice that asks a representative sample of the American public about crimes they have suffered. - **Pornography** — Printed or visual materials that are sexually explicit and that are intended to arouse sexual excitement rather than artistic appreciation. - **random sample** — A subset drawn from the larger population in which every unit in the population has the same chance of being included in the subset. - **sexual harassment** — Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or physical conduct of a sexual nature that is used as a condition of employment or promotion or that interferes with an individual’s job performance and creates an intimidating or hostile environment. - **Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)** — The FBI’s regular compilation of crime statistics, most of them on Part I crimes. ### Learning Objectives 1. Describe the extent of rape and sexual assault. 2. Explain why rape and sexual assault occur. ### Key Takeaways - Up to one-third of US women experience a rape or sexual assault, including attempts, in their lifetime. - Rape and sexual assault result from a combination of structural and cultural factors. In states and nations where women are more unequal, rape rates tend to be higher. ### Review Questions 1. What evidence and reasoning indicate that rape and sexual assault are not just the result of psychological problems affecting the men who engage in these crimes? 2. Write a brief essay in which you critically evaluate the cultural beliefs that contribute to rape and sexual assault. ## 4.5: The Benefits and Costs of Being Male ### Key Terms - **Discrimination** — With regard to racial and ethnic inequality, the arbitrary denial of rights, privileges, and opportunities to members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups. - **male privilege** — The advantages a male enjoys in a patriarchal society just because he is a male. - **masculinity** — Cultural expectations of boys and men, including toughness and bravery. - **patriarchy** — Male domination. - **race** — A category of people who share certain inherited physical characteristics, such as skin color, facial features, and stature. - **sexual harassment** — Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or physical conduct of a sexual nature that is used as a condition of employment or promotion or that interferes with an individual’s job performance and creates an intimidating or hostile environment. - **Socialization** — The process whereby individuals learn the culture of their society. - **white privilege** — The advantages that US whites enjoy in their daily lives simply because they are white, whether or not they are aware of these advantages. ### Learning Objectives 1. List some of the benefits of being male. 2. List some of the costs of being male. ### Key Takeaways - In a patriarchal society, males automatically have certain advantages, including a general freedom from fear of being raped and sexually assaulted and from experiencing job discrimination on the basis of their gender. - Men also suffer certain disadvantages from being male, including higher rates of injury, violence, and death and a lower likelihood of experiencing the joy that parenting often brings. ### Review Questions 1. What do you think is the most important advantage, privilege, or benefit that men enjoy in the United States? Explain your answer. 2. What do you think is the most significant cost or disadvantage that men experience? Again, explain your answer. ## 4.6: Reducing Gender Inequality ### Study Topics - Reducing Rape and Sexual Assault ### Key Terms - **Discrimination** — With regard to racial and ethnic inequality, the arbitrary denial of rights, privileges, and opportunities to members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups. - **family** — A group of two or more people who are related by blood, marriage, adoption, or a mutual commitment and who care for one another. - **masculinity** — Cultural expectations of boys and men, including toughness and bravery. - **Pornography** — Printed or visual materials that are sexually explicit and that are intended to arouse sexual excitement rather than artistic appreciation. - **sexism** — The belief that women are inferior to men. - **sexual harassment** — Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or physical conduct of a sexual nature that is used as a condition of employment or promotion or that interferes with an individual’s job performance and creates an intimidating or hostile environment. - **Socialization** — The process whereby individuals learn the culture of their society. - **stereotypes** — Simplified, mistaken generalizations about people because of their race and/or ethnicity. ### Learning Objectives 1. Describe any three policies or programs that should help reduce gender inequality. 2. Discuss possible ways of reducing rape and sexual assault. ### Key Takeaways - Certain government efforts, including increased financial support for child care, should help reduce gender inequality. - If gender inequality lessens, rape and sexual assault should decrease as well. ### Review Questions 1. To reduce gender inequality, do you think efforts should focus more on changing socialization practices or on changing policies in the workplace and schools? Explain your answer. 2. How hopeful are you that rape and sexual assault will decrease significantly in your lifetime? ## 4.7: End-of-Chapter Material ### Key Terms - **Discrimination** — With regard to racial and ethnic inequality, the arbitrary denial of rights, privileges, and opportunities to members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups. - **drug** — Any substance other than food that, when taken into the body, affects the structure and/or functioning of the body. - **masculinity** — Cultural expectations of boys and men, including toughness and bravery. - **race** — A category of people who share certain inherited physical characteristics, such as skin color, facial features, and stature. - **sex segregation** — In the workplace, the concentration of women in a relatively few low-paying clerical and service jobs. - **sexual harassment** — Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or physical conduct of a sexual nature that is used as a condition of employment or promotion or that interferes with an individual’s job performance and creates an intimidating or hostile environment. - **Socialization** — The process whereby individuals learn the culture of their society. ### Chapter Summary 1. Sex is a concept that refers to biological differences between females and males, while gender is a concept that refers to a society’s expectations of how females and males should think and behave. 2. In understanding gender differences, scholars continue to debate the value of biological explanations. Biological explanations are provocative but ultimately imply that gender differences are inevitable and that the status quo must be maintained. In contrast, cultural and socialization explanations imply some hope for changing gender roles and for reducing gender inequality. 3. Many studies emphasize that socialization leads children in the United States to adopt the gender roles associated with femininity and masculinity. Parents view and interact with their daughters and sons differently, and children continue to learn their gender roles from their peers, schools, the mass media, and religion. 4. Feminism refers to the belief that women should be equal to men. With feminism defined in this way, many more people hold feminist beliefs than might be willing to admit to it. 5. Gender inequality in the workplace is manifested through the gender gap in earnings and through sexual harassment. Women earn only about 80 percent of what men earn. Several reasons account for this gap, including sex segregation in the workplace, women’s caring roles, the devaluing of women’s work, and outright sex discrimination by employers. Sexual harassment against women is quite common and stems from cultural beliefs about women’s and men’s roles and structural differences in the workplace in power between women and men. 6. Women of color experience a triple burden based on their gender, race/ethnicity, and social class. Even though white women earn less money and are poorer than white men, women of color earn less money and are poorer than white women. 7. Violence against women is another manifestation of gender inequality. Research shows that up to one-third of US women will be raped or sexually assaulted and that about 70–80 percent of their assailants will be men they know. 8. In a patriarchal society men enjoy privileges just for being male, whether or not they recognize these privileges. At the same time, men also experience disadvantages, including violent behavior and victimization and higher rates of certain emotional problems than those experienced by women. ### Application A friend of yours is working twenty hours per week in a local restaurant during the academic year to earn money for her tuition. She tells you that her manager has pressured her to go out on a date with him and has hinted she could be fired if she refuses. Your friend likes working there otherwise and makes good tips, but she is now dreading having to go to work. With the tight job market, she fears not being able to find other work if she quits, and she’s afraid of being fired or not believed if she complains to state authorities. She asks you what she should do. What do you tell her? ### Action Ideas To help reduce gender inequality, you may wish to do any of the following: 1. Contribute money to a local, state, or national organization that provides treatment to adolescent girls with drug, alcohol, or other problems. 2. Volunteer at a rape crisis center or for a rape hotline. 3. Start or join a group on your campus that focuses on gender issues. 4. Start or join a group on your campus or in the local community that focuses on getting middle-school girls more interested in math and the sciences. ## 4.0: Prelude to Gender Inequality ### Study Topics - Social Problems in the News ### Key Terms - **sexual harassment** — Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or physical conduct of a sexual nature that is used as a condition of employment or promotion or that interferes with an individual’s job performance and creates an intimidating or hostile environment.